The Essay Writing Process - What to Write in a College Essay

The Essay Writing Process - What to Write in a College EssayWe all want to be able to write in a way that is engaging and interesting. Writing should be fun, and if you're too serious and boring, you will lose your readers. And no one wants to read an essay that is poorly written.You might have written essays on many different topics. You might be good at writing essays about things you are passionate about. Or maybe you are good at writing about something that you like. Either way, it's important to write something that is interesting and unique.However, writing an essay is not always an easy task. You can get stuck in the middle of the topic and have to start over from scratch. In addition, writing on your own can be very frustrating.Writing on your own can be very frustrating, and if you don't know how to write an essay, this can be a major setback. There are some techniques you can use to make it easier, though.The first thing you need to consider when writing a college essay is the topic. You have to think about what you are going to talk about, and then choose your topic carefully. Take some time to really think about what is important to you, and how much information you need to give. Once you've thought about it and have chosen a topic, you'll have a better idea of what to write about in your essay.After you have chosen a topic, you should start writing. Start by taking notes. Write down everything you can think of as soon as you can think of it. Then, take some time to go over these notes, one-by-one. You'll find that taking notes will help you tostay focused, and you'll be able to write quickly and get your essay done.You can also choose a different type of writing to tackle each section of your essay. Choose a different style to write the introduction. You could choose to write an essay on art, but decide to write about your favorite type of music first. You could even choose a different topic for the conclusion and then write an essay on that topic instead.Finally, you should think about what you are going to write. You should make sure that you come up with a theme for your essay, and then make sure that you stick to that theme. Then, you can focus on writing effectively, and you will be able to write a truly great essay.

Holocaust Museum - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 5 Words: 1480 Downloads: 4 Date added: 2019/04/26 Category History Essay Level High school Tags: Holocaust Essay Did you like this example? As expected, going to the Holocaust Museum was a very emotional experience. I learned about the Holocaust throughout my middle and high school years and it makes me angry and disgusted, but once I saw all the artifacts and pictures of what the Jewish people and their families had to go through I have this indescribable sense of empathy, putting myself in their shoes which gives me a different feeling then of just learning about it from a book or a Powerpoint presentation. Seeing artifacts from the war and concentration camps gave me chills. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Holocaust Museum" essay for you Create order Going through this Museum makes you think how could one person full of hate could not only get a whole countys support, but their willingness to execute his insanely dark and murderous plan. When I was walking through the museum I decided to talk about the crematorial which they used to dispose of the bodies after they were executed. This gives great insight of this time period by showing us how the Nazis thought that they really were the superior race and that using scientific racism was a justification to their inhumane thoughts and actions. We learn that the people of Germany were so desperate for a leader to bring them out of depression and make them a European or global power again, that they embodied his terrible plans and were willing to execute the Final Solution for him. When I went to the Museum there were so many moving artifacts to choose from. I was debating on quite a few of them to write about. I ended up choosing the crematorial because I felt like it showed us more of the destruction and intent of the Final Solution than the other artifacts. It was actually in the very last room of the tour so I thought I had already found what I was going to write about, but this really intrigued me because I had never seen one of the things the Nazis used to dispose of the bodies. Throughout school they show pictures of the gas chambers, the work sites, and the awful living spaces for the Jewish people at the camps, but I had never once seen a cermatorial, not even a picture of one. It had its own room and not very many people stopped and looked at it so I decided I would check it out. After reading the short write up on it I knew I wanted to use it for this paper. I think it is something different than a lot of people would choose to do because no one real ly cares and talks about what happened to the Jewish people after they were killed. I will say it isnt as important to learn about it compared to most things when you are taught about World War II and the Holocaust, but very important and it is symbolic of this time period. This is the final step of the Final Solution so it is important to talk about and should not get left out. It looks like how you would think a crematorial would look like. It has a big black metal door to it with a handle on. It also has another opening at the bottom of it that is also made out of the black metal which I dont know what the bottom opening is used for. Around the openings is made of red brick. When you look at the picture you can see that there are metal tools that they used when they were disposing of the bodies. You can see blackness all around the red brick from the fire. In the death camp of Auschwitz there were five different crematoriums that they used to burn the dead bodies. Each of the crematoriums had their own building. Some also had gas chambers connected to them. These Crematoriums were first built in 1939, but there wasnt many of them solely because at that time period the deaths were relatively low compared to what they would become in the upcoming years. The crematoriums used oil to run and were actually built for farmers who needed to burn debris and dead animals. As the number of deaths grew a man by the name of Heinrich Kori made the first permanent crematoria which did not run off oil like the previous one, but it ran off coal. The permanent ones would be put into brick buildings so an accident wouldnt burn down the building. The crematorium buildings would also have a place to store the dead bodies to just lay there until they could be cremated. They were usually built right beside where the Jewish people would sleep so it would be e asier to gather them to be executed. If you have ever seen the Boy in the Striped Pajamas the process is the same. They would round everyone up then tell them they are getting to shower so they had to take off all their clothes, then they would lock them in and put the gas on, killing everyone inside. After all that they would cremated the bodies and that was the smoke his father saw at the end of the movie. My artifact was taken from Crematorium V in 1944 when this specific furnace broke down after burning thousands of dead bodies. The first permanent crematorium was built in 1940 and was used until 1943. According to the Jewish virtual library this crematorium could burn 340 bodies per day. People that were deemed unfit and not healthy would be killed then burned first, and the Polish would be picked out too. There were two rooms in the crematorium that were just for killing people with gas. These rooms were called Bunker no.1 and Bunker no.2. After 1943 they had made countless other crematoriums so they stopped using crematorium I. Crematorium II-III were even bigger than the first one. According to the Jewish virtual library they could burn 1,440 bodies per day, that is more than 4x as many bodies per day. These buildings also had gas chambers connected to them and were used to kill Jews and some people who werent Jewish. These crematoriums were used from 1943- 1944. At the end of the war once the Nazis knew the allies were going to find the camps, the officers ordered Crematorium II-V to be destroyed to hide all the evidence. Crematorium IV-V were smaller than II and III, but bigger than the first one. According to Jewish virtual library it could burn 740 bodies per day, and some ex-Nazis say it could even be more. The Nazi soldiers would make the Jewish people dig pryes and pits next to these two crematoriums and then burn them inside the pits after they were killed in the gas chambers. That seems so messed up to me that they would almost work them to death digging so later they can lay in them dead and then cremated. These two crematoriums were used between the years 1943-1945, and were also destroyed so the Allies couldnt find the evidence of them. This object gives us insight on how much faith and how much the military personal and the whole country looked up to Hitler and thought he was the countrys savior. This country was in a time of misery and economic desperation, and Hitler rose to power and fixed it. Once this happened everyone was brainwashed by Hitler and his ideas and thought because he got them out of the countrys worst depression that everything he said and planned was the right thing to do. Being an independent person in this time period was very difficult and most people werent. If you had ideas that were against Hitlers regime you could be prosecuted or worse, killed. For that reason the majority of people just followed what Hitler said, no questions asked. Im not saying no one spoke out, but the majority did not either because they were scared or because they truly thought Hitler was the countrys savior. This furnace and the crematoriums show us how dark and evil Hitlers Nazi regime really was. They were willi ng to kill 11 million people because of one mans plans for a better Germany. The military and German people were so brainwashed that they thought all of this evil was acceptable. This museum was a memory I will have with me for the rest of my life. It showed more of the Jewish peoples struggles that you cant always invision from a book. My artifact supported how desperate the people of Germany must have been to get out of their depression and how they were dependent on Hitler and believed everything he wanted to do was the right thing to do. Based on the facts and history of the five crematoriums and the amount of people that were killed and then burned in them supports my thesis of the dependency and desperation of the German people.

John Locke Essay Questions - 1399 Words

Interview 1 - John Locke Self: What is your viewpoint on the state of nature? Locke: I believe that naturally all men are equal and should have the freedom to control their actions and properties, however they choose to do so. But it should be within the boundary of the law of nature meaning one should refrain from placing themselves into another person’s rights in life, health, liberty, and property. With the freedom that God granted each and every one of us, we shall learn to respect the rights given to others. Self: What is people’s human nature like at birth? Locke: At birth, children are born as blank slates, a tabula rasa, meaning that their mind is blank. But they are born with natural inclinations such as what their†¦show more content†¦What I could say is as a student growing up, I was irritated by the school curriculum at that time. I had no interests in the material taught at my university and rather prefer learning about the works of modern philosophers. But there wasn t any freedom for me to express my interest in this area because the course wasn’t taught in my university. In the end, I was eventually introduced to medicine and the experimental philosophy through my good friend Richard Lower from other universities. But from this experience, I say it’s important to be granted the freedom of education and knowing what your interests lie, especially at an early age. Thus, it’s then up to the parents to observe their child in order to come up with a sustainable method that can guide and motivate them t o pursue their interests. Self: How does language, a type of education, play a role in our lives? Locke: Language is really communication. By choosing specific words, we are communicating our ideas because each word attached to a specific idea. Well, words are, often times, misused. Words are arbitrary, especially those that stand for more complex ideas, so it’s often difficult to grasp which words connect to which ideas. The problem is worsened by the fact that we often are taught words before we understand what the word represents. This is not only affecting everyday interactions but also in important fields likeShow MoreRelatedEssay on Philosophy 101710 Words   |  3 Pageshear it hit the ground. This question has plagued mankind for an undetermined amount of years many even centuries. No one is for sure of the questions origin however the question itself is the important factor not the origin. There has been many debates over the issue. I choose to use simple logic and reasoning close to the same as John Locke would of thought and try to make a reasonable agreement. John Locke was known as an empiricists epistemologists whose essay has puzzled many minds and madeRead MoreBusiness Ethics: John Locke Essay1696 Words   |  7 PagesBusiness Ethics: John Locke Business Ethics Business ethics is defined as â€Å"a specialized study of moral right and wrong that focusses on moral standards as they apply to business institutions, organizations, and behavior† (Velasquez, 2014, p.15). Business ethics is the study of moral standards that focusses primarily on how these standards may apply to social systems and/or organizations. For this paper I will be focusing on one of the great minds of business ethics, John Locke, his ideas andRead More John Locke Essay1215 Words   |  5 PagesJohn Locke John Locke is considered to be England’s most prominent philosopher. He was born August 29, 1632 in a small town of Somerset, which is south of Bristol, England. Locke was the oldest of three children. His mother died when he was 22 years old and Locke spoke of her very well. Locke’s father was a Puritan attorney and clerk to a justice of the peace in the town where Locke was born. He was very strict with his son when he was younger. which Locke later believed that parents shouldRead MoreEssay about Why Is Personal Identity Important in Lockes View?1596 Words   |  7 PagesIn his essay Of Identity and Diversity, Locke talks about the importance of personal identity. The title of his essay gives an idea of his view. Identity, according to Locke, is the memory and self consciousness, and diversity is the faculty to transfer memories across bodies and souls. In order to make his point more understandable, Locke defines man and person. Locke identifies a man as an a nimal of a certain form and a person as a thinking intelligent being. Furthermore, to Locke, a person hasRead MoreEvolution and the Modern Social Contract Theory : Essay Outline1050 Words   |  5 PagesThe Emergence of the Modern Social Contract Theory Essay Outline POLS 14033 – Political Ideas and Ideologies The Emergence of the Modern Social Contract Theory Essay Question: Firstly, in this essay, we will describe and analyze the various concepts of the evolution and emergence of the modern social contract theory thru the analysis of several of its key political thinkers. We will provide a detailed review of the concepts that have developed and that were crucial for theRead MoreHuman Reasoning John Locke ´s An Essay Concerning Human Understanding1236 Words   |  5 PagesJohn Locke in his prose An Essay Concerning Human Understanding displays an extremely individualistic take on human reason (126). Proposing a perspective that is especially interesting during his time in the 17th century, which catered to a shift towards individual morals and responsibilities - the Puritan movement (Kang). Furthermore, John Locke sees the human mind as a product of one’s own experiences and inherent responsibilities, which is evident not only in his essay, but also in his upbringingRead MoreEssay about The View of Self1177 Words   |  5 Pages to answer t he question as to what makes the person now the same person that existed a year (or any period of time) ago. The world is constantly evolving and becoming more technologically proficient; ones identity is becoming more difficult to define. John Locke, an early modern philosopher, is credited as being the first philosopher to attempt to find the one constant that makes each person the same, from day to day or decade to decade. This essay proposes to explain Read MoreBiography of John Locke876 Words   |  4 PagesJohn Locke was a British born philosopher, physician, and writer that played a significant role in the framework of The United States. He was born in Wrington, England on August 29th, 1632. A father, also named John, who was a country lawyer, and his mother Anges Keene, raised Locke. Both his parents were Puritans, which influenced his later work immensely (John Locke). Locke’s parents sent him to the famous Westminister School in London where he was led by Alexander Popham, a member of ParliamentRead More Locke and Publius: Comparing Their Views on Civil Government1500 Words   |  6 Pageson the topic have their critics because they offer points that are highly controversial in theory and problematic when put into practice. John Locke and Publius, which is the collective name for Alexander Hamilton, James Madison and John Jay, both published essa ys with regards to the nature of government and largely championed the notion of democracy. With Locke writing on constitutional government in England and Publius writing on and essentially establishing governmental mechanisms in the UnitedRead MorePrinciples Of John Locke And The Declaration Of Independence1021 Words   |  5 Pages Essay Question: RELATE the ideas of John Locke to the Declaration of Independence by DISCUSSING three main ideas in the Declaration of Independence and how each relates to the Natural Rights Philosophy. FCA 1: Clearly stated definition AND explanation of Natural Rights Philosophy. (35 points) FCA 2: Correct and consistent verb usage. (15 points) FCA 3: No unnecessary words and phrases; no repetition. (15 points) FCA 4: Concluding remarks that summarizes the focus of the essay and emphasizes

The Deaths Of Normal Stars - 726 Words

Neutron Stars Guadalupe Zamudio SMT 314-03 Professor Dawdy October 26, 2016 The deaths of normal stars give birth to neutron stars. Neutron Stars are products of the so called supernova. Supernovae transpire during the death of a highly developed star which occurs when there is not enough nuclear fuel to keep the pressure intact inside the core of a star (Gursky 1975). The aftermath of a supernova is crucial because it frees iron, carbon, copper, and oxygen along with other elements found in a star. This explosion completely demolishes the star and has the ability to transform into either a black hole or neutron star (Freddy 2006). These supernovae are extremely bright and every 200 years there is an explosion that happens to be big enough and bright enough to be seen from earth. Neutron stars are very significant within the universe. It is said that the neutron star was discovered before the before the neutron. It was Lev Landau who first wrote about and studied dense stars. He focused his research on the idea there were objects in the uni verse that were denser than but as small as white dwarfs and regular stars (Haensel 2007). This focus leads to the discovery of the fascinating and complicated neutron star. The end is only the beginning for neutron stars. The neutron star is composed of the combination of both electron and protons that will develop into purely neutrons, which make up the core (Astronomy 2016). The density of neutron stars is soShow MoreRelatedDarth Vaders Psychological Profile Essay1630 Words   |  7 PagesAlex K. Ms. Fitzgibbons Adv. Psychology-C October 31, 2011 A Psychological Analysis of the Character of Darth Vader The Star Wars franchise has enlightened us about visions of the possible future; from flying cities to powerful weapons that can destroy entire planets. The mystical Jedi, the guardians of the Galactic Republic and users of the light side, fighting the Sith, evil warriors of cunning and treachery who use the dark side, both of whom wield the Force, an interconnecting ofRead MoreThe Violent Development Of Stars1676 Words   |  7 PagesAlthough once foreign giants to man, stars live some of the most explosive lives possible. Over billions of years, the violent development of stars from conception to death is one that had perplexed mankind for a while. Though as we formed a better understanding of how they develop, humans have learned that these stellar orbs directly influence the formation of, or death of objects in the universe. Stars are phenomenal objects in our universe that are instrumental to its development. These celestialRead MoreThe Death Of A Star1241 Words   |  5 Pageslike â€Å"people are born, they live, and then they die.† Of course, they aren’t wrong, but we humans go through beautiful stages before reaching death. 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Goldsmith Bankers Essay Example For Students

Goldsmith Bankers Essay Goldsmith Bankers Contents Introduction3 Essential Functions of Goldsmith Bankers3 Advantages and Disadvantages of a Formal Banking System5 Conclusion6 Work Cited6 Introduction Goldsmith Bankers and moneylenders were essential functions in all places where formal banking had not yet taken root. (Black, Reading 4-3, p. 2) Edward Backwell was a prominent goldsmith banker during the seventeenth century who performed many functions that a bank would normally perform. He along with other goldsmith bankers assisted in laying the ground work for today’s formal banking system. In his dealings as a goldsmith banker he facilitated trade, funded the government, and provided money for the military. The evolution of the banking system brought with the change attributes that are good and attributes that are bad, as such there are advantages and disadvantages to the creation of a more formal banking system. Essential Functions of Goldsmith Bankers As the mercantile revolution began and merchants flocked to the shores of England with silks and spices from the orient goldsmith bankers were used by these entrepreneurs to store the vast amount of gold they collected, and the goldsmith bankers issued loans to traders in need of capital. â€Å"The history of money†, Wikipedia) Goldsmith bankers facilitated trade by changing foreign money, trading valuable items, accepting deposits of gold on which they paid interest and giving loans on which they charged interest. For the above transactions written paper receipts were issued and used for trade in the market place as this was safer and easier than carrying amounts of gold around in their person. These written receipts were used in the same manner that we would use currency today and their value depended on the reputation and well being of the goldsmith banker, â€Å"The goldsmith, transformed into a banker, made another discovery: he realized that putting plenty of receipts (credits) into circulation would accelerate business, industry, construction; whereas restriction of credits, which he practised at first in circumstances in which he worried about a run on the bank for gold, paralyzed business development. (The Goldsmith Who Became a Banker, a True Story) As these written receipts became the replacement for the physical trading of gold the goldsmith bankers realized that the gold in their safe houses/vaults were not being â€Å"moved† as much and since human greed can take roots notes could be written in excess of the value of gold on hand. With not enough gold backing the notes the written receipts could be discounted, that is would be worth less than its face v alue if the goldsmith banker wrote too many notes and did not have enough gold to satisfy claims against the gold, â€Å"To lend gold which does not belong to me, at interest, needless to say! Better still, my dear master (was he talking to Satan? ), instead of the gold, I will lend a receipt, and demand payment of interest in gold; that gold will be mine, and my clients gold will remain in my vault to back up new loans. † (The Goldsmith Who Became a Banker, a True Story) Goldsmith bankers like Edward Backwell were highly important to the government as Mr. Backwell not only loaned money to the kings and government of his time but he also carried on international dealings on their behalf. Black, Reading 4-3, p. 5) This representation that was bestowed upon Blackwell probably stemmed from his business dealings and connections in France, Flanders (Belgium), and some of the German states, â€Å"Probably a result of his trade – arbitrage – in foreign coinage,† (Black, Reading 4-3, p. 5) The government settled claims on his behalf when he was abroad taking care of state business this emphasized the importance of Mr. Backwell (Black, Reading 4-3, p. ) a nd the power of â€Å"money† which he held over the state. He would turn down requests for loans that were made by the king and government and he showed no regard for their repayment rotation, since he would hardly wait his turn. (Black, Reading 4-3, p. 5) â€Å"He aimed his government loans at the protection of sea-routes and consequently of trade. † (Black, Reading 4-3, p. 7) This appeared to be in the effort of self interest as Mr. .u5fb5d57ce9cd545f8c4d5be0d46d761c , .u5fb5d57ce9cd545f8c4d5be0d46d761c .postImageUrl , .u5fb5d57ce9cd545f8c4d5be0d46d761c .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u5fb5d57ce9cd545f8c4d5be0d46d761c , .u5fb5d57ce9cd545f8c4d5be0d46d761c:hover , .u5fb5d57ce9cd545f8c4d5be0d46d761c:visited , .u5fb5d57ce9cd545f8c4d5be0d46d761c:active { border:0!important; } .u5fb5d57ce9cd545f8c4d5be0d46d761c .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u5fb5d57ce9cd545f8c4d5be0d46d761c { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u5fb5d57ce9cd545f8c4d5be0d46d761c:active , .u5fb5d57ce9cd545f8c4d5be0d46d761c:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u5fb5d57ce9cd545f8c4d5be0d46d761c .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u5fb5d57ce9cd545f8c4d5be0d46d761c .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u5fb5d57ce9cd545f8c4d5be0d46d761c .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u5fb5d57ce9cd545f8c4d5be0d46d761c .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u5fb5d57ce9cd545f8c4d5be0d46d761c:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u5fb5d57ce9cd545f8c4d5be0d46d761c .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u5fb5d57ce9cd545f8c4d5be0d46d761c .u5fb5d57ce9cd545f8c4d5be0d46d761c-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u5fb5d57ce9cd545f8c4d5be0d46d761c:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Terminus Hotels EssayBackwell’s business and status depended on his wealth which in turn depended on trade, both foreign and local. He was interested in becoming the treasurer of the Tangier Commission which would have put him in a position to influence England’s foreign policy. (Black, Reading 4-3, p. 7) Advantages and Disadvantages of a Formal Banking System The concept of banking has not changed over time, the means by which we conduct banking have changed the rules surrounding banking have changed, but not banking itself. The bankers still use our money to make their money. Greed still has a leading role in the industry of banking as revealed in the economic crisis, dare I say banking crisis that the United States of America recently experienced. Thankfully, the chartered banks are governed by rules that are a little more stringent, yet there is enough room for the banks to make large amounts of profit all within the handshake between the banks and the government. Some of the advantages of a formalized banking system are; it facilitates trade on a global scale, as money can be transferred from one institution to another anywhere in the world. The credit card system allows for some sense of security as visa and other such cards are accepted worldwide and can be used in emergencies, however when a person falls into the trap of credit card debt they usually need a rather large shovel to dig themselves out, this shovel is sometimes called bankruptcy. The informal banking systems such as the barter system of the goldsmith banker systems lent itself to the community, that is they knew the situation of the individuals and may have been willing to help, large institutions may be reluctant to operate in remote and/or poorer areas due to high operation cost. Conclusion Through out history and possibly into the future the desire for wealth in any form has dictated man’s actions, as such there are several powers that govern a society, the government, the law and religious bodies all keep man’s greed from creating chaos (Black, Reading 3-8, p. ) however the power that governs all the above powers is still money. Work Cited Black, James. Humanist Issues in Commercial Practice. HC1 Readings Book. 1st ed. Burnaby: Certified General Accountants Association of Canada, 2009. â€Å"The History of Money. † Wikipedia (n d) Date of retrieval: July 3, 2010 â€Å"The Goldsmith Who Became a Banker, a True Story. † Michael J ournal (n d) Date of retrieval: July 6, 2010

XDSL Technology Essay Example For Students

XDSL Technology Essay The accelerated growth of content rich applications and online gaming, which demand high bandwidth, has changed the nature of information networks. High-speed communication is now an ordinary requirement throughout business, government, academic, and home office environments. Internet access, telecommuting, and remote LAN access are three of the clearly defined services that network access providers are offering now. These rapidly growing applications are placing a new level of demand on the telephone infrastructure. In particular, the local loop portion of the network (i.e., the local connection from the subscriber to the local central office) has become a challenge for telephone companies. Historically, this local loop facility has been provisioned with copper cabling which cannot easily support high bandwidth transmission. This environment is now being stressed by the demand for increasingly higher bandwidth capacities. Although this infrastructure could be replaced by a massive r ollout of fiber technologies, the cost to do so would be insupportable in todays business models and, more importantly, the time to accomplish such a transition is unacceptable because the market demand exists today! Telephone companies are already faced with growing competition and unprecedented customer demandsA new category of companies, Internet Service Providers (ISPs), has emerged in this market as providers of data services. Traditionally ISPs have used the telephone company infrastructure. However, thanks to deregulation, they now have direct access to the physical cable plant. ISPs will be formidable competitors in this quest for the customers. Network service providers around the world fill this moment with great potential for remarkable success. We will write a custom essay on XDSL Technology specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now A new technology called high-speed Digital Subscriber Line (xDSL) has emerged onto this scene. xDSL, which encompasses several different technologies, essentially allows the extension of megabit bandwidth capacities from the service provider central office to the customer premises on a customer by customer basis over the existing copper cabling, without the need for massive infrastructure replacement and at very reasonable costs. These new xDSL solutions satisfy the business need to provision the network in a fast, cost effective manner, while preserving the infrastructure and allowing a planned migration into newer technologies. xDSL has the ability to meet the customer demand for high bandwidth right now, at costs that make sense. xDSL is a group of emerging Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) modem technologies for supporting high-rate traffic transmission over POTS lines. X stands for asymmetric in ADSL, rate adaptive in RADSL, high-speed in HDSL, and very high speed in VDSL. xDSL Delivers Broadband over Copper The best thing about xDSL technologies is their ability to transport large amounts of information across existing copper telephone lines. This is possible because xDSL modems leverage signal processing techniques that insert and extract more digital data onto analog lines. The key is modulation, a process in which one signal modifies the property of another. ADSL Development and Deployment Progress Of all the emerging xDSL technologies, ADSL is receiving the most attention because there is a standard (DMT) for it, and its capabilities provide NSPs with a competitive offering to cable modems. But there is increasing interest in symmetrical xDSL offerings such as HDSL and SDSL. As a local access service, ADSL s implementation has no critical drawbacks. It can be deployed as an overlay network where there is subscriber demand, eliminating the need for NSPs to risk building out their infrastructure unnecessarily in the hope that the technology will catch on. ADSL development and deployment is focused primarily in North America, followed by northern Europe and the Pacific Rim. In North America, US West, GTE, Ameritech, SBC, BellSouth, and Edmonton Tel (Canada) are the service providers leading the current wave of ADSL/xDSL deployment. Covad, Northpoint, and a handful of other CLECs are entering high-density metropolitan areastypically offering a portfolio of xDSL offerings at different classes of service and price points, and competing with incumbent local exchange carriers. Chicago-based InterAccess was the first ISP to offer ADSL. Telia (Sweden), Telenor (Norway), British Telecom (UK), and Telfonica (Spain) are leading xDSL proponents in Europe. In the Pacific Rim, Telstra (Australia), Ho ng Kong Telecom, and Singtel (Singapore) are deploying xDSL for data and video applications. ADSL modems have been tested successfully by more than 40 telephone companies, and close to 50,000 lines have been installed in various technology trials and commercial deployments. Increasingly, alternative service providers such as enterprises, multi-tenant building owners, hospitality businesses (hotels and resorts), and office park developers are offering or considering offering ADSL to their users as private network operators. In early 90s xDSL technologies were tested by some of the regional Bell operating companies in the United States, as well as several European telephone companies. At that time, the driving applications behind xDSL were video on demand (VOD) and interactive TV (ITV). Those applications were seen as potentially explosive sources of revenue growth for the residential market. In 1995, interest shifted toward the online world and more specifically the World Wide Web. T he increasing demand for bandwidth with which to access the Web is one of the primary applications at which xDSL technologies are now targeted. However, xDSL technologies are also being looked at in conjunction with several other applications. These applications may produce a far greater revenue stream in near future compared to broadband Web access for residential market. Listed below are just a few examples of how xDSL technology can be utilized:Intranet access for organizations that are standardizing on a Web based, client server model is one of primary xDSL applications. An organization that has implemented an Intranet will require higher bandwidth afforded by xDSL in order to link their remote offices and telecommuters to the more demanding business oriented applications running on their private Web servers. xDSL technologies have the potential to prove far more effective in low cost, high throughput, LAN to LAN connectivity than ISDN or traditional leased lines. Since xDSL operates at the physical layer, it could emerge as the most cost effective method of carrying frame relay traffic from the service subscriver to the frame relay network. As with frame relay the xDSL technologies can also be used to carry ATM cells to an ATM access device, where they are statistically mulltiplexed over an ATM backbone. Digital Subscriber Line, or DSL, is fundamentally another name for an ISDN-BRI channel operating at the Basic Rate Interface with two 64 kbps switched channels and one 16 kbps packet switching and signaling channel. This circuit can carry both voice and data in both directions at the same time. xDSL refers to those various arrangements in which advanced modulating techniques are imposed onto the local channel in order to derive higher throughput in one or both directions. The various types of xDSL are described in the following paragraphs. High-bit-rate Digital Subscriber Line (HDSL) derives its name from the high bandwidth that is transmitted in both directions over two copper loops. HDSL has proven to be a reliable and cost effective means for providing repeater-less T1 and E1 services over two twisted pair loops. This proven technology has already resulted in the deployment of over 300,000 HDSL equipped circuits throughout the local access infrastructure. HDSL transceivers can reliably transmit a 2.048 Mbps data signal over two non-loaded, 24 gauge (0.5mm), unconditioned twisted wire pair loops at a distance of up to 13 kft (4.2 km) without the need for repeaters. Eliminating the need for repeater equipment and removal of bridged taps significantly simplifies the labor and engineering effort to provision the service. This attribute eliminates the need to identify, modify, and verify a controlled environment, with power, secured access, and other factors needed to support repeater equipment. It also reduces the time, cost, and effort of isolating faults and taking corrective action when a failure does occur. Studies by some service providers have indicated that trouble shooting and replacing defective repeater equipment often costs significantly more than the cost of the equipment itself. These attributes translate into increased network up time and reduced engineering time; making possible T1 provisioning in a matter of days, as opposed to weeks. Faster service provisioning and greater up time leads to increased customer satisfaction and increased service revenues. To provision a 12 kft (3.6 km) local loop with traditional T1 transmission equipment requires two transceivers and two repeaters. To provision the same loop with HDSL, requires only two HDSL transceivers, one at each end of a line. .ub00818136e70754ac4394ed6e965ea56 , .ub00818136e70754ac4394ed6e965ea56 .postImageUrl , .ub00818136e70754ac4394ed6e965ea56 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .ub00818136e70754ac4394ed6e965ea56 , .ub00818136e70754ac4394ed6e965ea56:hover , .ub00818136e70754ac4394ed6e965ea56:visited , .ub00818136e70754ac4394ed6e965ea56:active { border:0!important; } .ub00818136e70754ac4394ed6e965ea56 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .ub00818136e70754ac4394ed6e965ea56 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .ub00818136e70754ac4394ed6e965ea56:active , .ub00818136e70754ac4394ed6e965ea56:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .ub00818136e70754ac4394ed6e965ea56 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .ub00818136e70754ac4394ed6e965ea56 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .ub00818136e70754ac4394ed6e965ea56 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .ub00818136e70754ac4394ed6e965ea56 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .ub00818136e70754ac4394ed6e965ea56:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .ub00818136e70754ac4394ed6e965ea56 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .ub00818136e70754ac4394ed6e965ea56 .ub00818136e70754ac4394ed6e965ea56-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .ub00818136e70754ac4394ed6e965ea56:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Civil Rights Movement EssaySingle-pair or Symmetric High-bit-rate Digital Subscriber Line (S-HDSL/SDSL) operate on a single copper pair as opposed to the traditional two pair HDSL described above. S-HDSL/SDSL allows easy implementation of applications that require symmetric data rates on a single local loop while maintaining the existing POTS on the same loop. Because only one pair is needed in this arrangement, the capacity of the entire local loop infrastructure is greatly magnified. With this capability, local providers can extract the maximum value from their existing plant, or deploy new capacities both more quickly and at a lower capital expenditure. This allows for rapid and cost effective deployment of intermediate data rate services. Potential uses for this technology include fractional T1 with a particular advantage in 768 kbps systems, Home Office, LAN Access, Distance Learning, Internet Access, and Campus or Large Facility LAN to LAN connectivity. Since S-HDSL/SDSL can be implemented with and without POTS and at multiple data rates, it can have different capacity and reach limitations. This allows for easy, cost effective implementation of such services as remote cell site support of PCs, remote LAN access, distance education and training, digital imaging, or any other service which requires a larger amount of bandwidth. Probably the most common xDSL type is Asymmetric Digital Subscriber, which takes its name from the comparatively high bandwidth in one direction, with low bandwidth in the opposite direction. ADSL uses a single phone line for transmission. Many service providers have also come to recognize its potential to support a range of data applications. Additionally, ADSLs ability to operate at speeds of up to 6 Mbps positions it to support real time broadcast services and pre-recorded interactive video services; and to have multiple video and data activities underway simultaneously. ADSL supports applications with asymmetric traffic demands such as:Rate Adaptive Digital Subscriber Line (RADSL) is a simple extension of ADSL used to encompass and support a wide variety of data rates depending on the lines transmission characteristics. This is advantageous in situations in which there is a lower bandwidth demand and in situations in which the line quality is less than needed for full bandwidth implementations. Very High-bit-rate Digital Subscriber Line (VDSL) provides very high bandwidth asymmetrically (up to 52 Mbps in one direction and 2 Mbps in the other) to businesses and residences with broadband access requirements over a Fiber-To-The-Curb (FTTC) network. Within the FTTC architecture, VDSL will address the last section of copper cabling to the subscriber premises. Typical distance and implementation of VDSL is 1 km @ 26 Mbps. Unfortunately, this type of xDSL is not very common because of lack of FTTC networks available today. XDSL signals are designed to maximize the rate of transmission of digital signals through non loaded twisted pairs, making use of bandwidths that can be greater than 1MHz, much greater than the 3000Hz or so allocated for voice transmission. There are several types of xDSL signal in commercial use today. Each signal type is implemented in circuitry with accompanying software, called a transceiver. The transceiver design includes the encoding or modulation scheme along with decoding or demodulation applied to convert serial binary data streams into a form suitable for transmission through twisted wire pairs. The transceivers may also employ various signal processing, equalization, amplification, and shaping techniques to adapt transmission for physical attenuation and phase distortions experienced by signals transmitted through twisted wire pairs. The transceiver software and circuitry may also use coding techniques to detect and correct noise that is present on a twisted wire pair. A variety of signal processing techniques have been developed over the past10 years to increase the bit rate of digital transmission through telephone loop twisted pairs. The following sections will describe these technologies. The DSL acronym was first used as shorthand to refer to the line code designed to support basic rate integrated services digital network (ISDN) transmission through twisted wire pair loops. The ISDN basic rate signal is required to carry an information payload of 144kbps, consisting of two B channels of 64kbps each and one packet data or D channel of 16kbps added for framing, error detection, and other overhead functions. The ISDN line of U interface operates at a raw data rate of 160kbps. In the mid 1980s the T1 committee in the United States created a standard U interface using a four-level line code referred to as 2B1Q for two binary bits per symbol carried by a quaternary symbol design. 2B1Q line code was designed to support ISDN transmission through loops of 18000ft or less, meeting voltage pulses of +/- 875V and +/- 2.625V. The symbol rate is 80000 baud and the energy spectrum used by ISDN peaks at 40000Hz. The ISDN signal is transmitted in full duplex mode, bidirectionally on the same pair of wires. In order to accomplish this, transceivers must contain a hybrid function to separate the two directions of transmission. To help the receiver differentiate between far-end transmission and reflections of near-end transmission from irregularities in the twisted pair transmission line due to wire gauge changes and bridged taps, echo cancellation tecniquess are used. The range of operation of ISDN is dictated by both attenuation and self near-end crosstalk (NEXT) from adjacent 2B1Q ISDN signals. The 2B1Q line code is sometimes referred to as a baseband signal because it uses energy in frequencies down to zero, overlapping with the voice frequency band. In order to carry voice through a DSL, the voice signal is digitized using PCM techniques and carried in one of the B channels. In ISDN applications the D channel is reserverd for data packets that are primarily used for call processing. In carrying simultaneous voice and data the ISDN basic rate line carries a maximum of 64kbps of data. In the absence of voice, both B channels may be bonded together to increase the data capacity to 128kbps. Both ends of an ISDN connection must use the same bonding protocol. ISDN connections are made by dialed access though a local digital switch that also terminates voice lines. Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM) utilizes amplitude and phase modulation to transmit multiple bits per baud. Unmodulated signal exhibits only two possible states allowing us only to transmit a zero or a one. With QAM, it is possible to transmit many more bits per state as there are many more states. This scheme utilizes a signal that can be synthesized by summing amplitude modulated cosine and sine waves. These two components, being 90 deg out of phase, are called quadrature, hence the name Quadrature Amplitude Modulation . By combining amplitude and phase modulation of a carrier signal, we can increase the number of states and thereby transmit more bits per every state change. .u27e023a7743fadf385f488d3be07d06f , .u27e023a7743fadf385f488d3be07d06f .postImageUrl , .u27e023a7743fadf385f488d3be07d06f .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u27e023a7743fadf385f488d3be07d06f , .u27e023a7743fadf385f488d3be07d06f:hover , .u27e023a7743fadf385f488d3be07d06f:visited , .u27e023a7743fadf385f488d3be07d06f:active { border:0!important; } .u27e023a7743fadf385f488d3be07d06f .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u27e023a7743fadf385f488d3be07d06f { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u27e023a7743fadf385f488d3be07d06f:active , .u27e023a7743fadf385f488d3be07d06f:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u27e023a7743fadf385f488d3be07d06f .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u27e023a7743fadf385f488d3be07d06f .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u27e023a7743fadf385f488d3be07d06f .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u27e023a7743fadf385f488d3be07d06f .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u27e023a7743fadf385f488d3be07d06f:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u27e023a7743fadf385f488d3be07d06f .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u27e023a7743fadf385f488d3be07d06f .u27e023a7743fadf385f488d3be07d06f-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u27e023a7743fadf385f488d3be07d06f:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Portrait of a Beautiful Woman EssayCarrierless amplitude and phase (CAP) modulation technique is closely related to QAM in that amplitude and phase are used to represent the binary signal. The difference between CAP and QAM lies in the state representation of the constellation pattern. CAP does not use a carrier signal to represent the phase and amplitude changes. Rather, two waveforms are used to encode the bits. The encoder replaces a stream of digital data with a complex equation that symbolizes a point on the constellation diagram. Thus, for a 32-CAP, there would be 32 possible locations on the diagram, all of which can be represented as a vector consisting of real and imaginary coordinates. Consequently, 32-CAP would result in 32 distinct equations of the type, each one representing five bits of data. CAP modulation is very suitable for use with ADSL. The spectrum from 0 to 4 kHz, voice band, is designated for plain old telephone services (POTS). Downstream (ATU-C to ATU-R), the spectrum from 26 kHz to 1.1 MHz is further divided into 249 discrete channels. Upstream (ATU-R to ATU-C), the spectrum above the POTS band consists of 25 channels between 26 kHz and 138 kHz. Echo canceling between the downstream and upstream signals permits reuse of these sub-channels. With the exception of carriers used for timing, each carrier is capable of carrying data. However, only those carriers with sufficient signal to noise ratio (SNR) are allocated payload for transmission. Each transmitting carrier is allotted a bit count and transmit power, based on the characteristics of the sub-channel. This results in an optimized data transfer rate for the current line c onditions. DMT allocates bits and transmission power away from the induced noise. The advantages of this process are an optimized data rate and less interference with other services existing in the same sheath, due to the symmetrical nature of induced crosstalk. The DMT technique exhibits a high degree of spectral compatibility based on power spectral density, rather than absolute transmit power. DMT has a substantial advantage over single carrier modulation systems in the presence of impulse noise. DMT spreads impulses over a large number of bits, averaging peaks. Only if the average exceeds the margin does DMT produce an error single carrier systems will error every time a peak exceeds the margin. Discrete wavelet multitone (DWMT) technology increases the usable capacity of telephone wires and coaxial cable, allowing telephone companies and cable operators to deliver two-way broadband telecommunications services over their existing networks. DWMT uses Multicarrier Modulation. A multicarrier system uses a transmission band efficiently by dividing it into hundreds of subchannels that are totally independent and spectrally isolated. In practice, implementations of multicarrier systems use orthogonal digital transformations on blocks of data, a process called subchannelization, in an attempt to achieve the frequency partitioning shown in the figure below. By keeping the signal subchannel power contained in a narrow bandwidth, each subchannel occupies only a small fraction of the total transmission band and overlaps only with immediately adjacent subchannels. When a signal is transmitted over a long copper loop (e.g. several miles), the higher frequency components of the signal att enuate significantly more (tens of dB) than the lower frequency components. Narrowband interferers from AM or amateur radio signals also affect the transmission by destroying the signal in parts of the band. Multicarrier technology, called Discrete Wavelet Multitone (DWMT), provides subchannel isolation that is superior to DMT. DWMT uses an advanced digital wavelet transform instead of the Fourier transform used in DMT. The T1.413 standard for ADSL defines two categories of modems: frequency division multiplex (FDM) modems (Category I) and echo cancellation modems (Category II). FDM systems allocate separate frequency bands for upstream and downstream transmissions. Echo canceled systems send upstream and downstream signal over the same frequencies. Since the attenuation of a signal over a copper line increases with frequency, it is desirable to transmit data using a frequency band that is as low as possible. In an ADSL system, the lowest attenuated frequencies begin right after the POTS band. In FDM system, the lower frequency band is used for upstream transmission while the downstream transmissions are allocated to the higher attenuated frequencies. Some xDSL transceivers use echo cancellation (similar to the echo cancellation utilized in the standard V.34 28.8kbps duplex modem) to exploit the lower attenuated frequencies and increase its downstream performance. By utilizing the lower frequencies for both upstream and downstream performance, the transceiver can deliver higher downstream performance, particularly on the longer loops where the higher frequencies become severely attenuated. In an effort to promote interoperability among FDM and EC systems, the echo-canceled transceivers can be configured to operate in an FDM mode in order to communicate with a category I (FDM) modem. The twisted pair wire between the telephone central office and end users of telecommunication services has a great deal more information capacity than used for the regular voice services. Several baseband and passband transmission systems collectively referred to as xDSL, have been developed over the last ten years that enable up to several megabits per second of data to be carried over the regular telephone twisted pair line. The xDSL family of technologies provides a wide variety of line driving schemes to accomplish and satisfy different market needs over todays infrastructure. xDSL has application in both the corporate and residential environments as well as flexibility to meet the market challenges. Since xDSL operates at the physical layer of OSI seven layer standard, it can be used in conjunction with ATM and Frame Relay technology. The most promising of the xDSL technologies for integrated Internet access, intranet access, remote LAN access, video-on-demand, and lifeline POTS applications in the near term is ADSL or R-ADSL (a rate-adaptive version of ADSL). During the past year, ADSL has concluded trials by more than 40 network service providers throughout the world, primarily in North America and northern Europe. Service introduction began in 1997, but ADSL service is still being rolled out in many areas. In the meantime, xDSL technologies and standards will continue to evolve, as will user demand for these emerging services relative to other local access service alternatives. The ability to utilize the existing telephone copper wire infrastructure as well as interoperability with ATM and Frame Relay technology, position xDSL as the most promising of the broadband access technology options for both residential and business users1.Marlis Humphrey and John Freeman, How XDSL Supports Broadband Services to the Home, IEEE Network., vol. 11, no. 1, Jan-Feb 1997, p. 14-23. 2.George T. Hawley, Systems Considerations for the use of XDSL Technology for Data Acce ss, IEEE Communication, vol. 35, no. 3, Mar 1997, p. 56-60. 3.Bhumip Khasnabish, Broadband to the Home (BTTH): Architectures, Access Methods, and the Appetite for it, IEEE Communication, vol. 35, no. 3, Mar 1997, p. 58-69 4.ADSL Forum website , www.adsl.com 5.Analog Devices website, www.analog.com Bibliography:1.Marlis Humphrey and John Freeman, How XDSL Supports Broadband Services to the Home, IEEE Network., vol. 11, no. 1, Jan-Feb 1997, p. 14-23. 2.George T. Hawley, Systems Considerations for the use of XDSL Technology for Data Access, IEEE Communication, vol. 35, no. 3, Mar 1997, p. 56-60. 3.Bhumip Khasnabish, Broadband to the Home (BTTH): Architectures, Access Methods, and the Appetite for it, IEEE Communication, vol. 35, no. 3, Mar 1997, p. 58-69 4.ADSL Forum website , www.adsl.com 5.Analog Devices website, www.analog.com 6.Kimo website, www.kimo.com 7.Westell website, www.westell.com

Direct Speech Definition and Examples

Direct Speech Definition and Examples Direct speech is a report of the exact words used by a speaker or writer. Contrast with indirect speech. Also called direct discourse. Direct speech is usually placed inside quotation marks and accompanied by a reporting verb, signal phrase, or quotative frame. Examples and Observations A South Carolina parrot was the sole witness to the death by neglect of a 98-year-old woman. Help me, Help me, said the parrot. Ha ha ha!(reported in Harpers Magazine, February 2011)I went in search of the good beer. Along the way, I caught an intriguing snippet of conversation in the sunroom:â€Å"So if I win at that table, I’ll go on to the World Series,† said the mom I know as some kind of government contractor.â€Å"World Series?† you ask.â€Å"Of Poker,† she replied. â€Å"I went last year.†Whoa.(Petula Dvorak, White House Correspondents’ Association Dinner Has Nothing on Suburban Fete. The Washington Post, May 3, 2012)How old are you? the man asked.The little boy, at the eternal question, looked at the man suspiciously for a minute and then said, Twenty-six. Eight hunnerd and forty eighty.His mother lifted her head from the book. Four, she said, smiling fondly at the little boy.Is that so? the man said politely to the little boy. Twenty -six. He nodded his head at the mother across the aisle. Is that your mother?The little boy leaned forward to look and then said, Yes, thats her.Whats your name? the man asked.The little boy looked suspicious again. Mr. Jesus, he said.(Shirley Jackson, The Witch. The Lottery and Other Stories. Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1949) Direct Speech and Indirect Speech While direct speech purports to give a verbatim rendition of the words that were spoken, indirect speech is more variable in claiming to represent a faithful report of the content or content and form of the words that were spoken. It is important to note, however, that the question of whether and how faithful a given speech report actually is, is of a quite different order. Both direct and indirect speech are stylistic devices for conveying messages. The former is used as if the words being used were those of another, which are therefore pivoted to a deictic center different from the speech situation of the report. Indirect speech, in contrast, has its deictic center in the report situation and is variable with respect to the extent that faithfulness to the linguistic form of what was said is being claimed. (Florian Coulmas, Reported Speech: Some General Issues. Direct and Indirect Speech, ed. by F. Coulmas. Walter de Gruyter, 1986) Direct Speech as Drama When a speaking event is reported via direct speech forms, it is possible to include many features that dramatize the way in which an utterance was produced. The quotative frame can also include verbs which indicate the speakers manner of expression (e.g. cry, exclaim, gasp), voice quality (e.g. mutter, scream, whisper), and type of emotion (e.g. giggle, laugh, sob). It can also include adverbs (e.g. angrily, brightly, cautiously, hoarsely, quickly, slowly) and descriptions of the reported speakers style and tone of voice, as illustrated in [5]. [5a] I have some good news, she whispered in a mischievous way.[5b] What is it? he snapped immediately.[5c] Cant you guess? she giggled.[5d] Oh, no! Dont tell me youre pregnant he wailed, with a whining nasal sound in his voice. The literary style of the examples in [5] is associated with an older tradition. In contemporary novels, there is often no indication, other than separate lines, of which character is speaking, as the direct speech forms are presented like a dramatic script, one after the other. (George Yule, Explaining English Grammar. Oxford University Press, 1998) Like: Signaling Direct Speech in Conversation An interesting new way of signaling direct speech has recently developed among younger English speakers and is spreading from the United States to Britain. This occurs entirely in spoken conversation, rather than in writing, . . . but here are some examples anyway. (It may help to imagine an American teenager speaking these examples.) - . . . Though the construction is new [in 1994] and not yet standard, its meaning is very clear. It seems to be used more often to report thoughts rather than actual speech. (James R. Hurford, Grammar: A Students Guide. Cambridge University Press, 1994) Differences in Reported Speech Even in the days of audio and video recording, there can be surprising differences in direct quotations attributed to the same source. A simple comparison of the same speech event covered in different newspapers can illustrate the problem. When his country was not invited to a meeting of the Commonwealth of Nations in 2003, the president of Zimbabwe, Robert Mugabe, said the following in a televised speech, according to The New York Times: If our sovereignty is what we have to lose to be re-admitted into the Commonwealth, Mr. Mugabe was quoted as saying on Friday, we will say goodbye to the Commonwealth. And perhaps the time has now come to say so. (Wines 2003) And the following according to an Associated Press story in the Philadelphia Inquirer. If our sovereignty is to be real, then we will say goodbye to the Commonwealth, [sic; second quotation mark missing] Mugabe said in remarks broadcast on state television. Perhaps the time has come to say so. (Shaw 2003) Did Mugabe produce both versions of these comments? If he gave only one, which published version is accurate? Do the versions have different sources? Are the differences in the exact wording significant or not?(Jeanne Fahnestock, Rhetorical Style: The Uses of Language in Persuasion. Oxford University Press, 2011)